summary of the chapter pastoralists in the modern world

Chapter 5

Pastoralists in the Modern World Pastoral Nomads and their Movements In the Mountains The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir. The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh. The cyclic movement between summer and winter pastures was typical of manypastoral communities of the Himalayas like the Bhotiyas, Sherpas andKinnauris. They had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of availablepastures at different places. On the Plateaus Plains and Deserts Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. Unlike the mountain pastoralists, it was not the cold and the snow that definedthe seasonal movement: rather it was the alteration of the monsoon and dryseason. In the dry season they moved to the coastal tracts, and left when the rains came. Banjaras were also a group of graziers found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh,Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Raikas is a pastoral community of Rajasthan. They combined cultivation withpastoralism. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life Waste Land Rules From the mid- nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in variousparts of the country. According to the Waste land Rule, uncultivated lands were taken over and givento select individuals. The individual was granted various concessions and was encouraged to settlethese lands. In most areas the lands taken over were grazing tracts used regularly bypastoralists.  Expansion of cultivation meant the decline of pastures and a problem forpastoralists. No pastoralists were allowed in the forests that were declared reserved; and inothers some customary grazing rights were granted with severely restrictedmovements. The colonial officials believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and youngshoots of trees. The pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if the area is rich of allthe resources. 1871: The colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act: Many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were termed asCriminal Tribes. These communities were expected to live only in the notified villagesettlements. They were not allowed to move without permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. During1850-1880, the right of collecting taxes was auctioned out to contractors. The contractors extracted as high a tax as they could. By the 1880s the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Affects of Colonial Policies on Pastoralists When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to becontinuously used and the quality of pastures declined. This led to a shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. Some pastoralists reduced the number of cattle in their herds; others discovered newpastures. Some rich pastoralists began buying land and settling down. Some became settled peasants cultivating land, while others took to extensive trading. Poor pastoralists lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working on fields orin small towns. Pastoralism in Africa Even today over 22million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for theirlivelihood. The main pastoral community is Maasai.Maasailand stretched over a vast area fromNorth Kenya to the steppes of Northern Tanzania.  In the 19thcentury, the European imperial powers divided the Maasailand with aninternational boundary between the British Kenya and the German Tanganyika. The best grazing grounds were taken over for white settlement and the Maasai wereconfined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures. Large areas of Maasai grazing lands were turned into game reserves like the Maasai Maraand Samburu National Park in Kenya. The Maasai pastoralists faced problems in the quality of pastures, less supply of fodderand cattle feeding. Pastoral groups were forced to live within the confines of special reserves. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter the markets in white areas and participation inany form of trade was prohibited. The Maasais could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available as aresult of which over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve died in the drought years of1933 and 1934. Not all were Equally Affected The Maasai society was divided into two social categories- elders and warriors. The warriors defended the community and organized cattle raids. They proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups andparticipating in wars. The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. The British appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai who were maderesponsible for the affairs of the tribe. The chiefs accumulated wealth over-time and hence had both pastoral and non-pastoralincome. Unlike the chiefs, the poor pastoralists suffered a lot during the years of war and famine. A new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.