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Chapter 3 Nationalism in India
 Nationalism
It involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e., a nation.
 Modern nationalism was associated with the formation of nation-states.
 In India, as in many other colonies, the growth of nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
 The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement
The war played an important role in shaping India‟s freedom struggle.
 Increase in defence expenditure due to the war led to the increase in taxes, custom duties, prices and the introduction of war loans.
 Extreme hardships, poverty and forced recruitments in the army made people hostile to the British rule.
 During 1918–19 and 1920–21, food shortages due to the failure of crops and famines and epidemics, that took a heavy toll of life, created resentment among the people of India against the foreign rule.
 Satyagraha
Satyagraha means appeal for truth. Mahatma Gandhi introduced this concept during his stay in South Africa. It is based on the ideals of truth and non- violence.
 January, 1915: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa.
 Champaran Satyagraha, 1916: First Gandhian mass-movement in India against the oppressive plantation system in Champaran (Bihar).
 Kheda Satyagraha, 1917: Gandhiji led the movement in Kheda district of Gujarat, demanding relaxation of the revenue tax owing to the poverty experienced by the farmers because of the outbreak of plague and crop failure.
 Ahmedabad Mill Strike, 1918: Gandhiji organised a Satyagraha against the cotton mill owners demanding an increase in the workers‟ wages and bonus.
 The Rowlatt Act (1919)
 Passed by the British Government.
 The Act gave the government enormous powers for repressing political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners for two years without any trail.
 6th April, 1919: Gandhi started the non-violent civil disobedience movement for opposing the Rowlatt Act with a nation-wide hartal.
 Shops were closed down, rallies were organised and rail workshop workers went on strike. Widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations took place.
 Government brutally repressed the nationalists. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.
 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, 13th April, 1919
 A number of people had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar for attending the annual Baisakhi fair.
 General Dyer surrounded the park and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds of people.
 Aftermath of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
 Crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. Strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings were extensively witnessed.
 The British used brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people. People were flogged and villages were bombed.
 This violence forced Gandhi to stop the movement.
 Criticism: The Rowlatt Satyagraha was limited mostly to cities and towns.
 Non-Cooperation Movement
Began in January 1921
 Causes
 Khilafat issue: After the First World War, the British sought to overthrow the Khalifa, the spiritual head of the Islamic world and the Turkish Emperor. This was deeply resented by Muslims all over the world, including the Indian Muslims.
 Rowlatt Act: The dissatisfaction from the Rowlatt Act and the failure of the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
 Jallianwala Bagh: The atrocious killing of hundreds of innocent people by the British at Jallianwala Bagh had made the Indian masses resentful towards the British rule.
 Gandhiji wanted to launch a mass movement encompassing the entire nation and all communities.
 Methods: Surrendering of government titles, boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, school, and foreign goods; and a full civil disobedience campaign.
 Disagreements
 Few Congress members were not in support of the idea of boycotting the council elections as they wanted to bring about changes in the system by being in power. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics.
 Some leaders feared the movement to turn violent.
 Events
 March, 1919 (Bombay): Khilafat Committee was formed with leaders such as Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
 September, 1920: Gandhi, in the Calcutta session of the Congress, convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.
 December, 1920 (Nagpur): Non-cooperation programme adopted by the Congress.
 The Movement in the Towns: The students left government schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, lawyers gave up their legal practices and the council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
 1921 and 1922: The import of foreign cloth dropped. Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. Production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
 Rebellion in the Countryside: The peasants had to do begar and work without pay in the farms of oppressive landlords. The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In Awadh, the peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra. The houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted and grain hoards were taken over in many places. Local leaders told the peasants that Gandhiji had declared that no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.
 Nai-dhobi bands were organised by the panchayats for depriving landlords of the services of even barbers and washer men.
 October, 1920: The Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and few others.
 Revolt by Tribals: The government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forest to graze their cattle or to collect fuel wood and fruits. Alluri Sitaram Raju led the guerrilla warfare in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh. The rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.
 Swaraj in the Plantations: Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, the plantation workers were not allowed to leave the tea gardens without permission. Thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.
 Impediments
 Movement slowed because khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and therefore, expensive for the poor people.
 Indian educational institutions were slow to come in place of the boycotted British ones.
 February, 1922: Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement because of its violent face in many places.
 Simon Commission
 Constituted by the Tory government of Britain under pressure of mass movements in India.
 Sir John Simon was the Chairman.
 Sought to look into the demands of the nationalists and suggest changes in the constitutional structure of India.
 Arrived in India in 1928.Congress and the Muslim League along with the other parties received the commission with black flags and slogans such as “Go back Simon”.
 October, 1929: The Commission recommended a „dominion status’ for India in coming future and a Round Table Conference for discussing a future constitution for India.
 Effects of Simon Commission
 December, 1929: Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore session of Congress formalized the demand of “Purna Swaraj”. 26th January, 1930 was celebrated as the Independence Day.
 1930: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar established the Depressed Classes Association.
 Civil Disobedience Movement
 Medium: Gandhiji chose salt as the medium for protesting against the British rule.
 31st January, 1930: Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands ranging from industrialists to peasants. The most important of the demands was the abolition of salt tax as salt was the most essential commodity for the common man.
 The government was asked to accept the demands by 11th march, failing which a civil disobedience movement would be started.
 Salt March
 Marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Started from Gandhi‟s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi, spanning a distance of 240 miles.
 6th April, 1930: Gandhi reached Dandi with thousands of followers and ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt from sea water.
 Spread
 Soon, the movement spread to the entire nation.
 Colonial laws were violated, salt was manufactured in numerous places, foreign clothes were burnt and liquor shops were picketed.
 Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
 Village officials resigned and at many places people violated forest laws by going into reserved forests for collecting wood.
 Government’s Response
 April, 1930: Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested
 May, 1930: Gandhiji was arrested
 Women and children were beaten by the government and peaceful satyagrahis were attacked.
 About 100,000 people were arrested.
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact and End of Movement
 5th March, 1931: Gandhiji called off the movement entering into a pact with Viceroy Lord Irwin. He consented to participate in the Round Table Conference and the government agreed to release the political prisoners.
 December, 1931: Gandhiji went to London for the Second Round Table Conference. The conference was a futile exercise as nothing fruitful came out of it for India.
 The Civil disobedience movement was re-launched but by 1934 it lost momentum.
 Participation by People
 Rich peasant communities such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh took part in the movement. Trade depression and falling prices caused a decrease in the cash income of these rich peasant communities. They decided to oppose the high revenue demands of the government through their participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 The poorer peasantry found difficulties in paying their rent due to the depression and the decrease in the cash income. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.
 The business class wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. They also opposed the colonial policies that restricted business activities.
 The business class, under the leadership of prominent industrialists such as Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla, attacked colonial control over the Indian economy, gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods.
 Causes of Failure
 The Civil Disobedience Movement was called off without the fulfilment of the demand of the rich peasant communities.
 Many rich peasant communities decided not to join the restarted Civil Disobedience Movement.
 The Congress was unwilling to support the „no rent‟ campaigns due to the fear of upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.
 The spread of militant activities, worries of prolonged business disruptions, growing influences of socialism amongst the young Congress members and the failure of the Round Table Conference led to the withdrawal of support to the movement by the business class.
 Industrial workers did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement except in Nagpur.
 The dalits (untouchables) did not participate as the Congress sided with the conservative high-caste Hindus.
 Muslim organizations and communities also sparsely participated in the movement. The Muslims alienated from the movement due to the fear of the dominance of the Hindu majority
 1920: Formation of the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress
 1927: Formation of the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI).
 Demands of Dalits
 During the course of the civil- disobedience movement, many dalit leaders separately demanded reservation of seats in the educational institutions and separate electorate for the legislative council elections.
 1930: Dr B.R. Ambedkar organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association
 Gandhiji began a fast unto death for opposing the demand of separate electorates for dalits because he believed that this would disunite the Indian masses.
 Poona Pact (September, 1932)
 Signed between Ambedkar and Gandhiji.
 It gave the depressed classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, which were to be voted in by the general electorate.
 Upsurge of Nationalism
 A sense of unity and nationalism was inspired by history and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols.
 Abanindranath Tagore‟s image of Bharat Mata and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay‟s song Vande Mataram united many people and communities.
 During the Swadeshi Movement, a tri-colour (red, green and yellow) flag was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.
 1921: Gandhiji had designed the tri-colour Swaraj flag (red, green and yellow) with the spinning wheel at the centre. This flag represented the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
 The glorious developments in the ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, and crafts and trade flourished were discovered with the help of history. This instilled pride and united the Indians.
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IMPACT OF RAWLATT ACT ON POLITICAL SITUATION IN INDIA

Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919).

Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April.

Rallies were organised in various cities

workers went on strike in railway workshops

shops closed down.

Alarmed by the popular upsurge, and scared that lines of communication such as the railways and telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided to clamp down on nationalists.

Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

On 13 April ; a crowd of villagers came to Amritsar to protest against proposed rowlatt act gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.

Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.

Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.

As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns.

There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.

The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people: satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do salaam (salute) to all sahibs; people were flogged and villages were bombed.

Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.

this also lead to the launching of non co operation movement

effect of the worldwide economic depression.ON INDIAN ECONOMY

Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926
it collapsed after 1930.
As the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.
By 1930, the countryside was in turmoil.

causes of civil disobedience movement

rejection of ganhiji 's 11 demands by lord irwin
effects of economic depression
simon commission

explain salt satyagraha

gandhiji sent a letter to lord irwin stating 11 demands.

If the demands were not fulfilled by 11 March, the letter stated, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign.

Irwin was unwilling to negotiate

So Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.

The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day.

Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by swaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British.

On 6 April he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water.

how did the first world war help in the growth of national movement in india??

The First World War created a new economic and political situation.

It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.

Through the war years prices increased leading to extreme hardship for the common people.

Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.

crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.

This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.

12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

What is meant by the idea of Satyagrah as advocated by Gandhiji?

The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without seeking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence. This could be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. People – including the oppressors – had to be persuaded to see the truth, instead of being forced to accept truth through the use of violence. By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

Rebellion in the Countryside: From the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals which were developing in different parts of India in the years after the war.

Awadh

In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi
The movement was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses.
Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords’ farms without any payment.
The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
In many places nai – dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
In June 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru began going around the villages in Awadh
By October, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others.
Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the villages around the region.
As the movement spread in 1921, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.

Tribal Peasants

In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s
Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits.
This enraged the hill people.
their livelihoods were affected and their traditional rights were being denied.
When the government began forcing them to contribute beggar for road building, the hill people revolted.
Alluri Sitaram Raju was their inspiration. he claimed that he had a variety of special powers
Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
Raju was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
he also asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.
The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.
Raju was captured and executed in 1924

Swaraj in the Plantations

For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.
Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and were rarely given such permission.
When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages. They, however, never reached their destination. they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

How people and the colonial government react to the Civil Disobedience Movement ? Explain.

Response of British Rulers

Worried by the developments, the colonial government began arresting the Congress leaders

This led to violent clashes in many palaces.

When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, was arrested in April 1930, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing.

Many were killed.

when Mahatma Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts and railway stations

frightened government responded with a policy of brutal repression.

peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000 people were arrested.

a)rich peasants

In the countryside, rich peasant communities – like the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh – were active in the movement.
Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices.
As their cash income disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government’s revenue demand.
And the refusal of the government to reduce the revenue demand led to widespread resentment.
These rich peasants became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement, organising their communities, and at times forcing reluctant members, to participate in the boycott programmes.
For them the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues

b) poor peasants

Many of them were small tenants cultivating land they had rented from landlords.
As the Depression continued and cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay their rent.
They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.
They joined a variety of radical movements, often led by Socialists and Communists.

c)business men

During the First World War, Indian merchants and industrialists had made huge profits and become powerful .
Keen on expanding their business, they now reacted against colonial policies that restricted business activities.
They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports
. To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla, the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy, and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement when it was first launched.
They gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods.
Most businessmen came to see swaraj as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longer exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints

d) industrial workers

The industrial working classes did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large numbers, except in the Nagpur region.
As the industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers stayed aloof.
But some workers did participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement, selectively adopting some ideas of the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods, as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions.
There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in 1932.
In 1930 thousands of workers in Chotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns

e) women

Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of women.
During Gandhiji’s salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him.
They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
Many went to jail.
In urban areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas they came from rich peasant households.
Moved by Gandhiji’s call, they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.

what were the cultural Processes through which nationallism captured peoples imagination in india? explain any four.

there were a variety of cultural processes through which nationalism captured people’s imagination. History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

Nation Depicted in Images

The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a figure or image.

This helps create an image with which people can identify the nation.

in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.

The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual.

In subsequent years, the image of Bharat Mata acquired many different forms, as it circulated in popular prints, and was painted by different artists.

Devotion to this mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

Folklores

Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore.

In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends.

These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.

It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of pride in one’s past.

In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival.

In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature; it was ‘the most trustworthy manifestation of people’s real thoughts and characteristics’.

National Flag

During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.

By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.

Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

Reinterpretation of History

. By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves.
Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements.
They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
These nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic.

Foreign goods were boycotted,
liquor shops picketed,
foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore.
In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.

SHORT NOTE ON KHILAFAT ISSUE

While the Rowlatt satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to cities and towns.
Mahatma Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India.
But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together.
One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue. The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey.
there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor – the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa).
To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
A young generation of Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue.
Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LAHORE SESSION OF CONGRESS

In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the celebrations attracted very little attention.

HOW GOVT. OPERESSED CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

Worried by the developments, the colonial government began arresting the Congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes in many palaces. When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested in April 1930, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing. Many were killed. A month later, when Mahatma Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts and railway stations – all structures that symbolised British rule. A frightened government responded with a policy of brutal repression. Peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000 people were arrested
.

WHEN, WHY AND HOW DID GANHIJI RELAUNCH C.D.M

In December 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down and he returned disappointed. Back in India, he discovered that the government had begun a new cycle of repression. Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail, the Congress had been declared illegal, and a series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts. With great apprehension, Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement

The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Participation of Dalits
For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools. He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change their heart and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’. But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community.

Participation of Muslims
Some of the Muslim political organisations in India were also lukewarm in their response to the Civil Disobedience Movement. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. As relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened, each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities. Every riot deepened the distance between the two communities.

ROLE OF AMBEDKAR TO ALLOT RESERVED SEATS TO DALIDS

Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits. When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932. It gave the Depressed Classes (later to be known as the Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.

EFFORTS OF CONGRESS AND MUSLIM LEAGUE TO NEGOTIATE FOR AN ALLIANCE

The Congress and the Muslim League made efforts to renegotiate an alliance, and in 1927 it appeared that such a unity could be forged. The important differences were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, one of the leaders of the Muslim League, was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab). Negotiations over the question of representation continued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise. When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities

what were the solutions suggested by b.r.ambedkar and mahatma gandhi to improve the conditions of harijans in india ?

ghandiji called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools. He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change their heart and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’.
Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits. When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society.

HOW NON COOPERATION MOVEMENT UNFOLD IN STAGES

Gandhiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. students, headmasters , teachers , lawyers , merchants and traders ,.peasants and tribals etc. participated in the movement
Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of them responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to different people.
a) he movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
b)It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals which were developing in different parts of India

INITIAL SATYAGRAHAS ORGANISED BY GANDHIJI IN INDIA

in India, Mahatma Gandhi successfully organized satyagraha movements in various places. In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system. Then in 1917, he organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organize a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

WHY GANDHIJI RECALLED N.C.M

gandhiji felt the movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles.so he decided to call off the movement

movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons.

Khadi cloth was often more expensive than massproduced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
Similarly the boycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

SHORT NOTE ON SIMON COMMISSION

the new Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. Set up in response to the nationalist movement, the commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. The problem was that the commission did not have a single Indian member. They were all British.
When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations

Transprot routes are called the basic arteries of our economy”. Support this statement

Transport plays an important role in the economy.

Because of transport raw materials reach the factory and finished products reach to the consumer.

The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their movement over space.

Therefore, efficient means of transport are pre-requisites for fast development.

they have been contributing to its socio-economic progress in many ways.and have added to the vitality of its economy.

It has enriched our life and added substantially to growing amenities and facilities for the comforts of life.

The growing importance of road transport vis-�-vis rail transport

(a) construction cost ofroads is much lower than that of railway lines,

(b) roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography,

(d) road transport is economical intransportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances,

(e) it also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,

(f) road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.

roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity

Golden Quadrilateral:

The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata- Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways.

The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project.

The major objective is to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities ofIndia .

implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).

• National Highways:

link extreme parts of the country.

Are the primary road systems

are laid and maintain

ned by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD

• State Highways:

Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters

constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State and Union Territories .

• District Roads:

connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.

are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

• Other Roads:

Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category.

These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.

Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a major town in the country by an all season motorable road.

• Border Roads: ( significance)

Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertaking constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country.

This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern and northeastern border areas.

These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic development of these area.

The Indian Railways is the largest public sector undertaking in the country. The first train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.

Metalled and unmetalled roads

Metalled roads are made of concrete or even bitumen of coal, these are all weather roads

. Unmetalled roads go out of use in the rainy season. They are made of mud.

Road Density

The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of roads.

Distribution of road is not uniform in the country.

Density of all roads varies from only 10 km in Jammu & Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala with the national average of 75 km (1996-97).

Road transportation in India faces a number of problems .

Keeping in view the volume of traffic and passengers, the road network is inadequate.

About half of the roads are unmetalled and this limits their usage during the rainy season.

The National Highways are inadequate

the roadways are highly congested in cities

most of the bridges and culverts are old and narrow.

Importance/ advantages of railways

Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India .

Railways also make it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along with transportation of goods over longer distances.

Apart from an important means of transport the Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years.

Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture.

The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.

The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most favourable condition for their growth., a large number of rivers requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles.

In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels.

The Himalayan mountainous regions too are unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population and lack of economic opportunities.

it was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand.

The contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed only through gaps or passes (Ghats).

In recent times, the development of the Konkan railway along the west coast has facilitated the movement of passengers and goods in this most important economic region of India . It has faced a number of problem such as sinking of track in some stretches and land slides.

rail transport suffers from certain problems

Many passengers travel without tickets.

Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely.

People stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this causes heavy damage to the railway.

Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India.

In the past, these were used to transport water to cities and industries.

Now, these are used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.

Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry.

The far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura , Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants could be thought of only because of pipelines.

Advantages:

Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but subsequent running costs are minimal.

It rules out trans-shipment losses or delays.

three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country.

• From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni andAllahabad . It has branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.

• From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.

• Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in Uttar Pradesh.

Waterways – advantages/ importance

Waterways are the cheapest means of transport.

They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.

It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.

the National Waterways

• The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1

• The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2

• The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3

Major Sea Ports

These major ports handle 95 per cent of India ’s foreign trade.

Kandla in Kuchchh

was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.

Kandla is a tidal port.

It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of highly productive granary and industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Mumbai

the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.

Jawaharlal Nehru port

was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this region.

Marmagao port (Goa)

is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country.

accounts for about fifty per cent of India ’s iron ore export.

New Mangalore port

located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh mines.

Kochi

the extreme south-western port,

located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.

On the east coast,

Tuticorin, in Tamil Nadu.

has a natural harbour and rich hinterland.

it has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.

Chennai

one of the oldest artificial ports of the country.

It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and cargo.

Vishakhapatnam

the deepest landlocked and well-protected port.

was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron ore exports.

Paradip port located in Orissa,

specialises in the export of iron ore.

Kolkata

is an inland riverine port.

serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra basin.

Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly.

Haldia port

was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port.

Airways:

The air transport was nationalised in 1953.

On the operational side, Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines), private scheduled airlines and non- scheduled operators provide domestic air services.

air India provides international air services.

Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. Provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Commission in its off- shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.

Indian Airlines operations also extend to the neighbouring countries of South and south-east Asia and the Middle east.

explain why is air transport preferred in north-eastern states of india?

it can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forest with great ease.

the north-eastern part of the country is marked with the presence of big rivers, dissected relief , dense forests and frequent floods and international frontiers and the air travel has made access to these places easier.

Role of communication

Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc. are the major means of communication in the country.

Personal communication - importance

Indian Post:

The Indian postal network is the largest in the world.

It handles parcels as well as personal written communications.

Cards and envelopes are considered first–class mail and are airlifted between stations covering both land and air.

The second–class mail includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals.

They are carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.

To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.

Telephone:

India has one of the largest telephone networks in Asia.

In order to strengthen the flow of information from the grassroot to the higher level, the government has made special provision to extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every village in the country.

There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India . It has been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with communication technology.

Mass Comunication - importance

m ass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes and policies.

It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and films.

All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country

Doordarshan, the national television channel of India , is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world.

It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational to sports, etc. for people of different age groups.

Newspapers:

India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals annually.

They are of different types depending upon their periodicity.

Newspapers are published in about 100 languages and dialects.

Largest number of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi, followed by English and Urdu.

Films:

India is the largest producer of feature films in the world.

It produces short films; video feature films and video short films.

The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both Indian and foreign films.

international Trade

Trade between two countries is called international trade.

It may take place through sea, air or land routes

. Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity.

It is, therefore, considered the economic barometer for a country.

Balance of trade

This is the difference between export and import of a country.

When export is higher than import , it is called favourable balance of trade

when the import is hihger than export, it is called unfavourable balance of payment.

International trade has under gone a sea change in the last fifteen years .

exchange of commodities and goods have been superseded by the exchange of information and knowledge.

India has emerged as a software giant at the international level

it is earning large foreign exchange through the export of information technology.

Tourism as a Trade and industry - importance

More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.

Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.

It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.

it is a major foreign exchange earner

Explain improvements made by Indian Railways in it 's functioning.

electrification of railway lines

to reduce burden on fossil fuels and to increase speed

conversion of meter gauge to broad gauge

to ensure higher speed and higher carrying capacity

construction of new railway lines

Construction of new railway track is undertaken in India to improve the connectivity of railways, decrease the burden on the existing lines and to accommodate high speed trains.

steam engines have being replaced by diesel and electric engines

steam engines cause pollution , requires more labour and are not effective

introduction of fast and intercity trains

in order to increase efficiency of transport system

provision of better facilities to users

it is done to make the passengers convenient and comfortable with their journey

eg: food , and other essential facilities

introduction of container service

inorder to increase transport of goods

introduction of computerised reservation system

it has made reservation of tickets 24 hrs through online to be carried any place at any time

A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which are significant and which can be overcome. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.
Different countries face different kinds of challenges. At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government.

Foundational Challenge

countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.

This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state.

For example, Nepal was under Monarchy till recent times. Now Nepal has changed to a democratic system.Nepal is a very good example of foundational challenge of democracy.

Challenge of Expansion

This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.

Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge.

This also means that less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Most countries including India and other democracies like the US face this challenge.

Deepening of Democracy

This involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. that is, strengthening those institutions that help people 's control and participation

this requires an attempt to bring down influence of rich and powerful people in making governmental decisions

3.political reform

also called democracy reform or democratic reform

all those suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democray is called political reform

4. guidelines to be kept in mind while devising ways ans means for political reform

making changes in laws

thinking of new laws to ban undesirable things should be resisted.

carefully devised changes in laws can help to discourage wrong political practises and encourage good ones

democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and ppolitically conscious citizens

any legal change must carefully look at what result it will have on politics

sometimes the result may be counter productive

the best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms

eg: RTI act helps people to find out what is happening in the government

this helps to control corruption and supplements existing laws that banned corruption and imposed strict penalties

democratic reforms are to be brought through political practise

therefore main focus of political reforms should be on ways to strengthen democratic practise

political participation by ordinary citizens should be encouraged

any proposal for political reform must think of what is a good solution, who will implement it and how

so politicians , rulers and citizens should work hand in hand

5. features of democracy

major desicions are taken by rulers elected by people
elections offer a fair chance to change existing rulers
right to vote is available to all people
govt. is limited by basic rules of constitution
decisions are taken only after debates and discussions on that topic

6. difference between democratic and non democratic govt,

refer to above points

7. how communalism pose a serious threat to indian democracy

it is a situation in which a particular community promotes its own interest
it leads to intolerance, far and suspicion towards members of other communities
it creates disunity among individuals
it is a serious threat to national integration and peaceful co existence
it leads to formation of pressure groups that protect and promote interests of specific community
political parties are also formed on basis of religion and leads to separatism
it also leads to communal violence, riots and massacre

8. how myanmar faced challenge of transition to democracy? ( cbse 2011)

army was in power
democratically elected govt. no allowed to rule
face challenge of making transition to democracy and instituting democratic govt,
need to bring down military regime and keep it away
should set up a sovereign and functional state

9. mention one challenge faced by each of the following countries ( 2010)

pakistan:
sri lanka
china

Minerals & Energy Resources

Minerals: Mineral are “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.”

Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.

A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the physical and chemical conditions under which the material forms. This, results in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that a particular mineral possesses.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS

Minerals are usually found in “ores”.

The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements.

The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient concentration to make its extraction commercially viable. The type of formation or structure in which they are found determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be mined. This also determines the cost of extraction.

(i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks

· minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints.

· smaller occurrences are called veins

· larger are called lodes.

· they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through cavities towards the earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as they rise.

· Eg: tin, copper, zinc and lead etc.

(ii) In sedimentary rocks

· minerals occur in beds or layers.

· formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.

· Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of long periods under great heat and pressure.

· gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. are formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions.

(iii) Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores.eg: Bauxite

(iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.

· These deposits are called ‘placer deposits’

· contain minerals, which are not corroded by water.

· Eg: gold, silver, tin and platinum

(v) The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but not of economic significance.

common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.

ocean beds, are rich in manganese nodules.

Types Minerals

Ferrous Minerals: Ferrous minerals account for about three fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.

They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

India exports substantial quantities of ferrous minerals after meeting her internal demands.

Iron Ore

· basic mineral

· backbone of industrial development.

· India is rich in good quality iron ores.

· Magnetite

(i) finest iron ore

(ii) very high content of iron up to 70 per cent.

(iii) excellent magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical industry.

· hematite most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used,

(i) has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).

Leading producer - karnataka

Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

• Orissa- Jharkhand belt:

In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the

In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined

• Durg - Bastar - Chandrapur belt

lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.

Very high grade hematites are found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chattisgarh.

The range of hills comprise of 14 deposits of super high grade hematite iron ore.

has the best physical properties needed for steel making.

Iron ore is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port.

• Bellary – Chitradurga – Chikmaglur - Tumkur belt in Karnataka

has large reserves of iron ore.

The Kudermukh mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export unit.

Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world.

The ore is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.

• Maharashtra - Goa belt

includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.

Though, the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited.

Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port.

Manganese

Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy, bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.

Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel.

Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Copper

India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper.

Being malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.

The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper.

The Singbhum district of Jharkhand, The Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also famous.

Bauxite

it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminium is obtained.

Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates.

Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.

India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur- Katni.

Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the state.

Non-Metallic Minerals

Mica:

made up of a series of plates or leaves.

It splits easily into thin sheets.

These sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters high.

Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown.

Due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage, mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries.

Mica deposits are found Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.

In Rajasthan, Ajmer. And Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh are important producers in the country.

Rock Minerals:

Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates.

It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological formations.

Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.

Limestone consist of only single mineral

Hazards of Mining

The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases.

The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners.

The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining.

Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, and increase in stream and river pollution.

CONSERVATION OF MINERALS – why to conserve?

The total volume of workable mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust.

We are rapidly consuming mineral resources that required millions of years to be created and concentrated.

The geological processes of mineral formation are so slow that the rates of replenishment are infinitely small in comparison to the present rates of consumption.

Mineral resources are, therefore, finite and non-renewable.

Rich mineral deposits are our country’s extremely valuable but short-lived possessions.

Continued extraction of ores leads to increasing costs as mineral extraction comes from greater depths along with decrease in quality.

How to conserve?

A conscious effort needs to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner. Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs. Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes are steps in conserving our mineral resources for the future.

Energy Resources

Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity.

Energy resources can be classified as conventional and nonconventional sources.

Conventional sources: Firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal).

Non-conventional sources: Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.

continuation of these is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area.

using dung cake too is being discouraged because it consumes most valuable manure which could be used in agriculture.

Coal:

In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.

It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energy needs.

It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs.

Coal is formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression and the depth and time of burial.

Types”

Pet:

· Decaying plants in swamps produce peat.

· a low carbon and high moisture contents

· low heating capacity.

Lignite

· low grade brown coal,

· soft

· high moisture content.

· The principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.

Bituminous Coal:

· Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous coal.

· most popular coal in commercial use.

· metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.

Anthracite:

the highest quality hard coal.

In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages,

gondwana,

a little over 200 million years in age

The major resources of Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal, are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.

tertiary

in tertiary deposits which are only about 55 million years old.

Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Petroleum

Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal.

It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of manufacturing industries.

Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age.

In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold

The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.

The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.

Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil.

About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum.

It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.

Natural gas is considered an environment friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions and is, therefore, the fuel for the present century.

Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin. , reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields , in the Gulf of Cambay. ,Andaman and Nicobar islands

HBJ Pipeline:

The 1700 km long Hazira - Bijaipur - Jagdishpur pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in western and northern India.

This artery has provided an impetus to India’s gas production.

The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.

Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) for vehicles to replace liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in the country.

Electricity

Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:

by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity;

by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce thermal power.

Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water, which is a renewable resource. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.

Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity. There are over 310 thermal power plants in India.

Nuclear Energy:

Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.

When such an alteration is made, much energy is released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power.

Uranium and thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or nuclear power

The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in thorium.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Rising prices of oil and gas and their potential shortages have raised uncertainties about the security of energy supply in future, which in turn has serious repercussions on the growth of the national economy.

increasing use of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental problems.

Hence, there is a pressing need to use renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste material.

These are called non-conventional energy sources.

Solar Energy

India has a bright future in solar energy as it is a tropical country

Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.

Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas.

The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to sterilise milk cans.

t use of solar energy will be able to minimise the dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes, which in turn will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture.

Wind Power

India now ranks as a “wind super power” in the world.

The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.

Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.

Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country.

Biogas

Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.

Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, dung cake and charcoal.

Biogas plants are set up at municipal, cooperative and individual levels.

The plants using cattle dung are know as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.

These provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.

Biogas is by far the most efficient use of cattle dung.

It improves the quality of manure and also prevents the loss of trees and manure due to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes.

Tidal Energy

Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets.

During high tide water flows into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed.

After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.

In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

A 900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up here by the National Hydropower Corporation.

Geo Thermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.

Geothermal energy exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter with increasing depth.

Where the geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths.

Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.

It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam.

This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.

There are several hundred hot springs in India, which could be used to generate electricity.

Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy. One is located in the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conservation of Energy Resources

energy consumption is increasing and energy reserves are getting depeleted.

there is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.

Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable energy.

India is presently one of the least energy efficient countries in the world.

We have to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of our limited energy resources.

For example, as concerned citizens we can do our bit by using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles; switching off electricity when not in use, using power-saving devices and using non-conventional sources of energy.

will give notes of industries 2morrow

can any one provide me revision notes of nationalism in india urgent

mail me at akashmanojmahale@gmail.com

its urgent please.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Mono party system

National Political Parties

Way to Reform Political Parties:

Importance/ advantages of railways

Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India .

Railways also make it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along with transportation of goods over longer distances.

Apart from an important means of transport the Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years.

Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture.

rail transport suffers from certain problems

Many passengers travel without tickets.

Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely.

People stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this causes heavy damage to the railway.

Waterways – advantages/ importance

Minerals & Energy Resources

Energy Resources

can any one provide me revision notes of nationalism in india urgent mail me at akashmanojmahale@gmail.com its urgent please.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Mono party system

National Political Parties

Way to Reform Political Parties:

Importance/ advantages of railways

Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India .

Railways also make it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along with transportation of goods over longer distances.

Apart from an important means of transport the Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years.

Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture.

rail transport suffers from certain problems

Many passengers travel without tickets.

Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely.

People stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this causes heavy damage to the railway.

Waterways – advantages/ importance

Minerals & Energy Resources

Energy Resources

can any one provide me revision notes of nationalism in india urgent

mail me at akashmanojmahale@gmail.com

its urgent please.